Mountain Lion – Fragmented Power Pouncer

History

Wikipedia commons

Since the late 1850’s, North America’s big cat has been known as the mountain lion. Early Spanish explorers called it ‘gato monte‘ which means cat of the mountain.

Latin America calls it puma (powerful) which comes from the 16th century Peruvian Quechua language.

Because of its wide range, diverse habitats, and the span of human cultural locations, this animal is known by many other names including; cougar, panther, and catamount.

Geographic Habitat

California’s current mountain lion population is between 4,000 – 6,000 animals.

Closely related to the house cat, these big cats are adaptable to a large variety of ecosystems. In the Nevada County portion of the Sierra Nevadas, they like dense underbrush and rocky outcropping habitats.

Highly territorial, males generally claim a 150 square mile area that may vary depending on terrain and prey availability. Females have smaller territories, about half the size, and they stay in the general proximity of their mothers.

 

“Wherever you see deer in the state, there’s also going to be cougars.”  – Chris Wilmers, Wildlife Ecologist, UC Santa Cruz

Characteristics

  • Mountain lions are the world’s fourth-largest big cat weighing between 150 – 200 lbs. (1. Siberian Tiger | 900 lbs. 2. African Lion | 600 lbs. 3. Jaguar | 300 lbs.)
  • While the mountain lion is an apex predator, it will sometimes give ground to black bears.
  • These cats can swim, although this is not a favorite activity.
  • Hunting mostly during twilight hours and at night, mountain lions are ambush predators. They sit-and-wait, often in concealment, before launching a fast surprise attack.
  • With large paws and powerful hind legs, they’re sprinters that can run between 40 – 50 miles per hour.

Jumping Adaptation

Mountain lions can jump as high as seven queen-sized beds, stacked length-wise, end-to-end. This makes getting into trees easy and is an ambush asset.

Behavior

  • Traditionally thought to be solitary predators, biologists are currently studying complex family structures.
  • Mountain lions will reciprocally share kills within small communities controlled by dominant males.
  • Mountain lions can kill prey with a single bite to the neck, positioning teeth into the spinal cord between vertebrae.
  • These animals cache their meals. After a kill, they’ll bury the prey and continue visiting the carcass for up to a week. 
  • Males use feces and urine to scent-mark a territory, often scraping leaves and grass into a pile and urinating on it.
  • Young males searching for territory are more likely to fight and cause livestock problems.
  • Mountain lion relocation causes territory disruption, resulting in aggressive behaviors, and conflicts with established males.

Vocalizations are Mostly for Family

Humans may never know about lion neighbors, partly because we don’t recognize their vocalizations.

With other animals, scent marking is the main mode of mountain lion communication.  Within family units, mothers and kittens make a variety of noncat-like sounds.

Mothers make sounds to call for and locate kittens and kittens make distress calls that are answered by their mothers.

Purring may be sibling competition for food.

Caterwauling is used by females mostly in heat.

Diet

Mountain lions are obligate carnivores, they must eat meat to survive. Generally, they need to make one large kill (deer) every two weeks.  However, females raising kittens may need to make more frequent kills – every three days.

For an adult, average daily meat consumption is up to 10 lbs.

Food sources include;

  • deer
  • fox
  • skunk
  • rabbits
  • coyote
  • raccoons
  • river Otter
  • bobcat
  • squirrels
  • woodrats
  • rats and other rodents
  • any animal it can catch including livestock and housepets

In a Sonoma County study,

75% of mountain lion diet was deer,

10% livestock, 10% feral and house cats,

and 5% small mammals.

Reproduction

  • Females reach reproduction age between one-and-a-half and three years. Occasionally couples are monogamous, but more often mountain lions mate with multiple partners. During mating, a couple will remain together for about a week. After mating, the males go back to their own territory.
  • Gestation is approximately 3 months.
  • Females will have litters of 1-6 cubs, with an average of about 2. They’ll give birth every 2-3 years.
  • Cubs are born blind.
  • Nursing lasts up to 3 months.
  • Cub survival rate is slightly over kitten one per litter.
  • Kittens have spots for up to about 2 1/2 years.
  • Females raise their kittens alone.
  • Only mothers and offspring spend time together in social groups.
  • Juveniles remain with their mother from 1 1/2 – 2 years, until she’s ready for her next litter.
Photo credit: Eric Kilby

When kittens are nursed, the mother will bring meat to them. As they get older, she takes them to kill sites. Older still, they begin hunting small mammals on their own.

Photo credit: National Parks Service

Causes of Kitten Mortality

  • coyote
  • bear
  • hypothermia
  • wildfires
  • male mountain lions

Habitat Fragmentation A Breeding Problem

Southern California mountain lion studies reveal that male lions must have the ability to safely move between wide swaths of land to access and breed with diverse female populations.

With movement constricted by busy freeways, inbreeding occurs. This genetically weakens populations.

Mountain lion inbreeding tail deformities
Crooked tails are a genetic defect from inbreeding. Article: Genetic Connectivity Threatens a Southern California Puma Population by Ernst, Vickers, Morrison & Boyce

Experts believe if inbreeding continues, the Southern California mountain lions will go extinct within in the next 50 or 60 years.

Mountain lion inbreeding tail deformities
Ten genetic populations of California mountain lions (marked by color) Mountain Lion Foundation | mountainlion.org

Life Span

In the wild, the average mountain lion life span is between 8-13 years. In captivity, they’ve been known to live up to 21 years.

Predators & Threats

  • Genetic isolation & inbreeding (habitat fragmentation).
  • Rodenticides (rat and mouse poisons) traveling up through the food chain.  (In a study of 400 mountain lion necropsies, 95% showed some degree of poisoning.)
  • As habitats are encroached upon by humans, mountain lions are coming in contact with and susceptible to feline leukemia, rabies, and other infections.
  • Cars (roadkill).
  • Man and kill permits.

Nevada County Mountain Lion Kill Permits 2011-2019

Nevada County Mountain Lion Depredation Statistics 2011-2019 PDF

What Humans Can Do to Successfully Live in Lion Territory

Since we live in mountain lion territory, we should always assume we have an invisible mountain lion in our backyard and behave accordingly.

  • Don’t use anticoagulant rodenticides.
  • Value and support local and state policies aimed toward mountain lion conservation.
  • Never feed deer or other wild animals and encourage neighbors to do the same. (Wild animals who’ve lost natural fear of humans become a public safety issue, resulting in animal extermination.)
  • Fire safety – removing dense, low-lying vegetation close to your house – is identical for mountain lion safety.
  • Plant deer-resistant plants.
  • Consider outdoor automatic lighting.
  • Reduce driving speeds in wildlife zones, being especially from dawn to dusk.
  • Don’t litter and/or pick up roadside litter.
  • Don’t leave pet food outside.
  • Secure garbage on pick-up days.
  • Don’t let pets roam free.
  • Train guard dogs to watch-over livestock.
  • Build mountain lion resistant (very tall) livestock shelters.
  • Don’t put meat in compost piles.
  • Establish wildlife passage corridors to accommodate animal migration and movement.

Prevent Mountain Lion Encounters

  • Hike in groups.
  • Carry sticks.
  • Don’t bend down to tie shoes.
  • Make lots of noise.
  • Keep children walking in front of adults and within sight.
  • Carry pepper spray.
  • Keep dogs leashed. (A loose, running dog stimulates mountain lion chase behavior. If under pursuit, your pet will bring the chase straight to you!)

Attacks on Humans are Rare

Attacks on humans are very rare! The natural behavior for a mountain lion is to run away.

If a lion doesn’t run immediately;

  • Make sure it isn’t cornered.
  • Be big and loud.
  • Pull your jacket above your head.
  • Don’t crouch down or run.
  • Pick up children and back away.
  • Don’t make intense eye contact.

If it comes to a physical encounter, attempt to;

  • Fight back with rocks and sticks.
  • Stay on your feet.
  • Yell.
  • Protect your neck.
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Resources:

Audubon Canyon Ranch – Living with Lions: ACR’s mountain lion research and education project
Bay Area Puma Project
BBC – What it’s like living in California’s mountain lion country [2017] – When a kill permit is issued
California Department of Fish and Wildlife – Commonly Asked Questions about Mountain Lions
California Department of Fish and Wildlife – Mountain Lion
California Department of Fish and Wildlife – Mountain Lion Depredation Statistics Summary
California Department of Fish and Wildlife – Verified Mountain Lion-Human Attack in California [ Two fatalities statewide in 34 years] California Mountain Lions – film & miniseries
CBS Denver – Dog Owner Says Lesson Learned After Encouonger with Moutain Lion [2016]

Conserving Connectivity: Some Lessons from Mountain Lions in Southern California, Morrison, Scott A. and Boyce
Conservation Society of California – Oakland Zoo – Mountain Lion Initiative The Cougar Conundrum: Sharing the World with a Successful Predator by Mark Elbroch | Revelator Article – What’s the Value of a Mountain Lion?
Los Angeles Times – After a nuisance mountain lion was killed, two L.A. city leaders wan to end the practice [2020] Los Angeles Times – Southern California mountain lions get temporary endangered status [2020] Mercury News – Mountain lions get endangered species protections in California
Mountain Lion Foundation
The Nature Conservancy – Animal Tracks 
National Geographic – Exploring the use of five type os puma vocalizations
NPR – The Secret, Social Lives of Mountain Lions | radio program 3:49
Sacramento Bee – California voters banned mountain lion hunting three decades ago, but the killing never stopped [2017] Smithsonian Magazine – California Will Build the Largest Wildlife Crossing in the World [2019] Liberty Canyon Wildlife Crossing PDF

Sonoma West – Living with mountain lions [2019] UC Davis Puma Project – New Study Details the Double Lives of Surburban Pumas [2004] UC Santa Cruz – Power of the pounce 
Wikipedia.org – Cougar

Predator Proofing for Livestock & Pets:

Preditor Proof Pens

Wildlife Rescue | Sonoma County | Puma Proof Pen

‘Oh’possum, a Tick Eating, Fear Fainting Marsupial

Is the ‘possum’ an opossum or just a possum?
 
Opossums are North America’s only marsupial, an animal that carries and feeds minuscule young in a pouch.

First Observations, Description & Misidentification

 
When they were first observed (and recorded), during the early 1600’s, John Smith stated that the animal “hath an head like a swine …tail like a rat … of the bigness of a cat.”  Its name was derived from an expression for “white dog/beast” in the Virginia Algonquian language.
Animal misidentification is still common today… If your “cat” has a hairless tail that it hangs from, toothy alligator-like jaws, and it hisses, it’s probably a Virginia opossum.
 

Fossil Record & Species Introduction to California 

Opossums can be traced through sixty million years of the fossil record. What makes this even more astounding is the animal’s two-year lifespan!

Evolved for tropical ecosystems, several waves of opossum were introduced to California. The first population was brought to southern California in 1890, Tennessee immigrants brought the second wave to central California in 1910 as a food source and escapees from a fur trading operation was responsible for a third wave.

 

Traits Supporting Adaptability 

Opossum tracks. Opossums have opposable thumbs on all four feet. Photo Credit: Lensim
  • “Hands” (opposable thumbs) on all four feet
  • Prehensile tail – used like a 5th limb/hand 
  • Freezes when in danger 
  • Faints – nervous shock reaction – falls over & plays dead
  • Anal gland secretions – a repulsive greenish musk-like fluid 
  • Females can have three litters/year – producing up to 20 babies each
  • Short gestation period – 11-14 days
  • Rabies resistant (probably from low body temperature)
  • Resistance to poisonous snake venom

 

 

 

    Predators that eat living animals often leave prey that appears (and smells) dead. the animal rolls over on its side, becomes limp, shuts its eyes, and lets its tongue hang from an open mouth. The heartbeat slows and the animal appears to be dead.

Diet

They’re omnivores and will eat anything.

  • Small rodents
  • Ticks – up to 5,000 in a season! (Lyme disease reduction)
  • Insects
  • Slugs
  • Snails
  • Worms
  • Frogs
  • Birds
  • Vegetables
  • Fruits
  • Garbage
  • Pet Food
  • Bird Seed

Opossums are nocturnal scavengers. They’re attracted by the smell of rotting food in garbage cans and along roadways.

After 2.5 months in the marsupial pouch, babies come out and cling to their mother’s fur.

Jacks, Jills & Joeys

Adult males and females are known as Jacks and Jills. Babies are Joeys.

Pouch Checking

Habitat

An opossum’s first habitat of choice is near streams and wetlands. Since they are not prolific diggers, they’ll shelter in tree cavities, abandoned burrows of other animals, under brush piles or under manmade structures.

In urban areas, they can be found under decks, in garden sheds, attics, garages, or under steps. Nesting material appears like random debris piles rather than woven or constructed.

Opossum Pest Prevention

Because of their varied diet, adaptability, and warm winter climates, the animals have successfully integrated into urban environments. If you have opossums living near your home, below are a few actions you can take to encourage them to move.

  • clear overhanging brush away from the walls of our home and roof – at least 5 feet.
  • remove fallen fruit from under fruit trees
  • tightly stack firewood, at least 18″ off the ground
  • tight-fitting garbage can lids
  • feed pets indoors and/or move pet food inside at night
  • poultry wire protection fencing around gardens (burry down under earth at the base at least 6″)
  • keep food scraps out of compost piles
  • screen access to under house or steps

Although Opossums can carry disease, and their defense strategies are noxious and showy, they are not generally considered dangerous wild animals.

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Resources:

Bay Nature – More Opossums for the Internet

Blog Post Opossum Artist – Bonnie McKeegan

Davis Wiki – Opossums

Mental Floss – What’s the Difference Between a Possum and an Opossum?

Mother Jones – I’ve Stayed Silent Too Long: Opossums Deserve Our Love

Nevada County Wildlife Services

NPR – Declining Biodiversity Speeds Spreading of Disease

Opossum Society of the United States – General Information

Pest Management Professional – Why The Opossum Successfully Lives in the Shadows of Humans

Science Daily – Climate change, urbanization driving opossum’s northward march

The Opossum: Its Amazing Story by William & Winifred Krause {Dept. of Pathology and Anatomical Sciences, School of Medicine, University of Missouri, Columbia, Missouri] PDF

Northern Woodlands – Live Wierd, Die Young: the Virginia Opossum

SFGate – What do Opossums Eat and Are they Dangerous?

University of California Agriculture & Natural Resources – Statewide Integrated Pest Management Program  – Opossum

Wikipedia – Virginia Opossum

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