Category: Fungi

The study of fungi is called mycology. This category highlights fungi found in and around the Deer Creek Watershed.

Its adaptations, habitat, and characteristics.

Lichen: Exploring Microecosystems in Your Backyard

Lichens are tiny farming biomes that live on rocks, soil and trees.

Fortunately, with a magnifying glass or macro setting on your smartphone, you can explore these systems within a few steps of your door.

A Lichen is a Symbiotic System

Lichen is composed of fungi, algae, and bacteria. The fungus captures plant cells, taking it inside its body where it nourishes and protects them. When the algal cells photosynthesize, they produce sugars that the fungus eats.

Very resilient, lichens have survived space experiments and can lay dormant for up to ten years in wetter California climates. Some species are over 1,000 years old!

 

What Lichens Need to Grow

Lichens need air, water, light, nutrients, and something to cling to (substrate).

Air: Like sponges, lichens absorb everything they need from nutrients to moisture. They’re so sensitive to environmental pollutants, temperature shifts and water conditions that the U.S. Forest Service uses lichen surveys as indicators of forest health, providing hot spot data and conservation priorities.

Water: Lichens don’t have the ability to regulate moisture levels (poikilohydry).  When they lack water, they dry out, go dormant and look dark. When water is available, they plump-up, look green, grow, and reproduce.

Light: The algal cells that the fungi farm need light to photosynthesize. Lichen species have different light requirements. Some prefer full sun on rocks while others like shady, cooler subclimates. Brightness and coloring are also affected by light. Species adapted to hotter and brighter conditions are generally more colorful.
 
Nutrients: Lichen nutrients include; oxygen, carbon, and nitrogen. Lichens use cyanobacteria to “fix” nitrogen from the air which is then used to organic acids and proteins. 
Species types – acidophyte & nitrophyte – that flourish or diminish under certain climate conditions are used in lichen surveys.
 
Substrate: Any non-moving object the lichen can hold onto – rocks, trees, soil, tombstones, houses, farm equipment, etc. 

Types of Lichen

 

Foliose: Leafy lichens that use tiny rhizines to attach to substrate.

Folios lichen – Plitt’s Xanthoparmelia plitti, Lettuce lichen/Lobaria oregana & Rhizine Photo by Ed Uebel – NOTE: Lichens are not parasitic. They  do not hurt trees.
 

Forage: Hair-like and hanging species that are eaten by animals and humans

Forage lichen – Willa/Bryoria fremontii – eaten by squirrels, western voles, wild turkey, slugs, snails, mites, springtails, certain caterpillars and Mule deer. Photo by Jason Hollinger

 

 

Crustose:  Lichens grow flat on their substrate surface

Crustose lichens – gold cobblestone/Pleopsidium flavum and Firedot/Caloplaca trachyphylla – Photos by Jason Hollinger

Fruticose: looks like a shrub, bush, or coral

Fruticose lichen – Old Man’s Beard/Usnea Photo by Rhododendrites & Wolf lichen/Letharia vulpina Photo by Jason Hollinger

Reproduction

Lichens have multiple reproduction methods. If they reproduce sexually (by way of fruiting bodies) they create spores. If they reproduce asexually, a powdery substance – soredia –  is released. Both methods use, wind, water, and animals to transport the newbies.

The fruiting body of the Pixie Cup lichen

MYTH: Lichen do not harm trees. 

Other Lichen Uses & Users

Clothing, wound absorbent, diapers, model train shrubbery, and an ingredient in concrete, perfume, and deodorant. Some lichens are being studied as new sources of antibiotics and medicines.

Camouflage for; lizards, moths, tree frogs and other insects.

Insect larva camouflage

 

Nesting Material
At least 50 bird species use lichens as nesting material.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

If you enjoyed this post, you might also like Bird’s Nest Fungi – Spores Spread by Raindrops

 

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Click on image to go to a FREE downloadable coloring sheet
Click on image to purchase or view more Life on the Creek art

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Resources:

Acidophyte & Nitrophyte Lichen Species  (air quality indicators)

Bay Nature – Identifying with Lichens

California Lichen Society – Observations  |  California’s State Lichen

Consortium of North America Lichen Herbaria 

Field Guide To California Lichens 

 

Live Science – What are Lichens?

The Scientist – Not One, Not Two, But Three Fungi Present in Lichen 

Marin County Lichens (Introduction to)

National Lichens & Air Quality Database and Clearinghouse

North American Mycological Association

OPAL Identification Guide (PDF)

Sharnoff – Lichen uses by people: Perfume & Misc. | Dyeing

Sierra College Natural History Museum – California Lace Lichen

UC, Berkeley – California Lichen Society

University of Minnesota Extension – Non-harmful tree conditions

USDA – Lichen Bioindication of Biodiversity, Air Quality, and Climate: Baseline Results From Monitoring in Washington, Oregon, and California

U.S. Forest Service – About Lichens

U.S. Forest Service – Lichen Habitat 

Wikipedia – Lichens of the Sierra Nevada U.S.

Books

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Lichen Photography

Lichen Photography by Stephen Sharnoff

Lichen Photography by Tim Wheeler 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Bat – a Colonial Insectivore

Bats are the only flying mammals. Wing membranes are attached to their fingers. After rodents, they are the largest order of Earth animals. 

Microbats live in California. they are insectivores and can eat their weight in insects daily. (Large bats, such as the Fruit Bat, also known as a Flying Fox, live in tropical climates.)

Roost/Colony:

Roosts, which can contain up to thirty generations of family members, are used for protection, warmth, grooming, eating, resting, and mating. Roosting sites include caves, mines, bridges, buildings, crevices, and tree hollows. Bats are nocturnal. They leave their roosts at dusk to hunt and drink water at night.

Since roosts are where large numbers of bats congregate, it’s a system that provides fertile conditions for the spread of diseases such as, rabies, histoplasmosis, and other viruses. Roosts are where White-nose syndrome is spreading (see below).

The Mexican free-tailed bat or Brazilian free-tailed bat (Tadarida brasiliensis) is a migrating bat native to the Americas. Since it roosts in large numbers in few locations, it’s vulnerable to habitat destruction. This bat is considered a species of special concern in California because of declining populations.

Environmental Obstacles:

A keystone species, bats keep ecosystems healthy by controlling insect populations, but they’ve got obstacles. Habitat loss and destruction of roosting sites, wind farms on migratory pathways, and drought are a few.  White-nose syndrome, a muzzle and wing flesh-eating fungus, has decimated bat populations across North America.

Some good news for California bats may be forest lands opened up by wildfires.  UC Berkeley postdoctoral researcher Zachary Steel found that certain bat populations have increased in burned forests. The causes are still under study but causes may be increased food sources, roosting locations in dead trees, and/or more space for flight maneuverability 

Special Adaptations:

Bats hunt with echolocation, sounds out of human hearing range that help locate prey.

While bats can use their mouths to catch prey, most bugs are caught in their wing membranes and either eaten in the air or carried to a roosting spot.

Bats have bendy bones which makes them ultra maneuverable. Some say bats have the fastest horizontal flying speed of any animal, close to 99 miles per hour!

Among roosting bats that create large quantities of urine and guano, they’ve developed respiratory mucous Ph buffer. 

Torpor is an important adaptation for microbats. It can range from a partial state of heterothermic arousal to full hibernation. Lowing body temperature reduces the need for food and fat storage.

A new study by University of California, Berkeley, researchers shows that bats’ brain activity is literally in sync when bats engage in social behaviors like grooming, fighting or sniffing each other.

Using scent markers and sound, mothers can locate their own babies out of thousands.

Life Span

10-20 years

Diet:

  • mosquitos
  • moths
  • beetles
  • dragonflies
  • flies
  • wasps
  • ants
  • grasshoppers
  • termites

Breeding

Photo Credit: Mnolf

Females can breed after 9 months of age, they congregate in maternity roosts.
Males become sexually mature at two years.
Gestation is about three months.
Generally, one pup is born per year. 
Young suckle for between four to seven weeks.
Mother’s must eat their body weight in insects to keep up with nursing demands.


Predators

  • owls
  • hawks
  • falcons

Roosts may come under predation from:

  • climbing animals
  • cats
  • coyote
  • raccoon
  • some species of snakes

Bat Species in Nevada County

  • Big Brown Bat, EPTESICUS FUSCUS
  • California Myotis, MYOTIS CALIFORNICUS
  • Canyon Bat, WESTERN PIPISTRELLE
  • Fringed Myotis, MYOTIS THYSANODES
  • Hoary Bat, LASIURUS CINEREUS
  • Little Brown Myotis, MYOTIS LUCIFUGUS
  • L0ng-eared Myotis, MYOTIS EVOTIS
  • Long-legged Myotis, MYOTIS VOLANS
  • Mexican Free-tail, TADARIDA BRASILIENSIS (migratory)
  • Pallid Bat, ANTROZOUS PALLIDUS
  • Silver-Haired Bat, LASIONYCTERIS NOCTIVAGANS
  • Western Red Bat, LASIURUS BLOSSEVILLII
  • Yuma Myotis, MYOTIS YUMANENSIS

White-Nose Syndrome

“WNS is considered one of the deadliest wildlife diseases, having killed over six million North American bats since it was discovered,” said CDFW Wildlife Veterinarian and Epidemiologist Dr. Deana Clifford. “WNS doesn’t affect human health or pets, but the ecological impacts of bat die-offs may indirectly impact agricultural systems through loss of the natural pesticide effect and nutrient cycling of bats.”

As of spring 2019, the California Department of Fish and Wildlife detected white-nose syndrome in bats in Chester, Plumas County.

Californians Can Help By:

Cavers/Spelunkers Can:

Click image to see more Life on the Creek art. Five dollars from every sale goes toward supporting the documentary project.

Resources:

California Department of  Fish and Wildlife – Deadly Bat Fungus Detected in California

Corkys Pest –Bat Identification 

Northern California Bats – Education, Lectures, Rescue & Resources

Sierra Club – A Song of Bats and Fire

Smithsonian Magazine – What is Killing the Bats?

UC, Berkeley – Bats Brains Sync when they Socialize

USGS – What is White-nose Syndrome?

Washington Post – The batty history of bats in the military and why this new idea just might work

White Nose Syndrom Response Team

Wikipedia – Bat

Wikipedia – Maternity colony

Wikipedia – Mexican Free-tail bat

 
 

AUSTIN, TX (May 8, 2019) – Bat Conservation International (BCI) announced today that early signs of the fungus Pseudogymnoascus destructans (Pd) have been detected at one of the world’s premier bat conservation sites, Bracken Cave Preserve.

Miniscule Mountain Beetle Turning Forests Red

“It’s about the size of a mouse turd,” says Diana Six, Professor of Forest Entomology/Pathology at University of Montana, when describing the Mountain Pine Beetle.

Historically, the Mountain Pine Beetle contributed to a healthy forest by eliminating weakened trees, making room for new growth. Cold temperatures kept populations in check, only 20% of larvae would survive a winter.

Beetle Lifespan

At higher altitudes, Pine Beetles may live for up to two years; however, most beetles complete a life cycle within one year. They go through egg, larva and pupa stages beneath the bark of a tree. When summer temperatures warmed sufficiently, adults emerged in search of a new host. Females lead the charge, emitting pheromones that beckon males to follow.

Carrying a fungus in mouth pockets, it is released inside the tree when the beetles begin boring into it. The fungus grows, gathering nitrogen that supplies the beetles with needed food. A female will lay approximately 60 eggs. The fungus supplies nutrients to the growing offspring.

Fungus Kills the Tree

The fungus invades the sapwood, preventing the tree from using pitch to repel beetles.  It also blocks water and nutrient transport inside the tree.

Pine Beetles are opportunists. When conditions are right, they colonize and reproduce. Now might be the beetle’s greatest moment in history.

Contributing Factors to Widespread Beetle Success

  • Managed forest landscapes – the practice of replanting only a single species
  • Years of fire suppression procedures
  • Climate change – low night temperatures at night don’t drop enough to kill larvae
  • Forest trees weakened by years of drought 2014 – 2017

Mountain Pine Beetles have been devastating forests in Canada, trees at higher altitudes with no natural resistance.  The insects aren’t picky when food source areas are depleted, they move on to another one. Ponderosa and other pines in Nevada County, stressed and weakened by drought, are feeling the bite.

It may be the largest forest insect blight
ever seen in North America. – Wikipedia

Unfortunately, by the time tree needles turn red, the beetles have already settled in another host. A single besieged tree will nourish enough beetles to infect seven more. With numbers like that, they cut a wide swath through a forest quickly. Aside from keeping dead trees from becoming a hazard to humans or buildings, there is no effective method to halt or control the infestation…

Infestation Evidence

  • Reddish dust and “boreholes”
  • “Pitch tubes” resing globules the tree produced in an attempt to protect itself
  • Leaves / needles turning yellow, then red
  • Horizontal larvae egg galleries under the bark
  • A blue-gray color in sapwood, caused by beetle introduced fungus

As disturbing as it is to see huge areas of forest turning red, a bright spot may be the survivors – genetic adaptors. These are trees that struggled in cooler, wetter conditions. The beetle blight is giving them an opportunity to flourish. Mountain Pine Beetles don’t ‘see’ those trees as food.

It is too soon to tell the effects that these species will have on animal habitats, water retention, and snow packs.

“Insects are expected to be one of the first indicators of climate change in terrestrial ecosystems because they are cold blooded.  Everything they do – everything – is dependent on temperature.”  -Andrew Nikiforuk, author of Empire of the Beetle

 Sound as Pest Control

 

 

 

 

click on image to see more Life on the Creek art

 

 

If you liked this post, check out Tree Mortality State of Emergency

Resources:

Bark and Wood Boring Beetles of the World

Mercury News – Why tiny insects are tearing up Sierra forests

National Geographic 4/2015 – Pine Beetle Epidemic

Nature of Things with David Suzuki 8/2014 – The Beetles are Coming

PrepareforBarkBeetle.org

San Francisco Chronicle – Bark beetles ravaging drought–stricken forests in California

University of Montana – Diana Six, Professor of Forest Entomology / Pathology

USDA – Bark Beetle Management

YubaNet – Tree Mortality in Nevada County 9/9/16

Wikipedia –  Dendroctonus ponderosae

(beetle discussion with Diana Six 0-14:33)

Sierran Tree Frog with Chemical Sensitivities

Even though it has ‘tree’ in its name, the Sierran Tree Frog is mostly found near the ground.

Habitat

Tree frogs live in bushes and grass. Their preference is for damp, moist areas.

Behavior

Large toe pads that allow it to walk on vertical surfaces. The toe pads are also useful for clinging to sticks and twigs.

To avoid being eaten, the Sierran Tree Frog is fast! It can jump long distances and swim quickly to hide.  It also remains perfectly still and changes color to stay camouflaged. Sierran Tree Frogs can change from green and gray to brown.

The Sierran Tree Frog is more often heard than it is seen. Males call to advertise availability and attract mates. Breeding and egg-laying occur from November through July. During this time, males establish a territory that they defend with encounter calls, butting, or wrestling with rivals.

Diet

Worms, small invertebrates, and flying insects are the frog’s dietary staples.

Tadpoles feed on algae, bacteria and organic debris. Their feeding activities help keep streams and waterways clear of slippery plant material.

Global Amphibian Issues

Scientists say that we are living in the Anthropocene epoch, a time when human activity is the dominant influence on climate and the environment. Unfortunately, the consequences of this are that many habitats and species will disappear.

Frogs and newts are indicator species because they have thin skin that easily absorbs pollutants. Since they live both in water and on land, they absorb toxins from both environments. Like the miners who used canaries to warn when toxic gas was present, amphibian health determines the quality of the environment.

There are a number of factors that affect amphibian populations. Not unique to Nevada County, these conditions are happening globally.

Factors Contributing to Amphibian Decline

  • Housing and Habitat Loss

“We’re running out of places where frogs are healthy,” Amphibian Study Volunteer

“It doesn’t matter how many frogs we save if there is no place to put them back in the wild,” Edgardo Griffith, El Valle Amphibian Conservation Center

  • Chytridiomycosis (Batrachochytrim dendrobatidis) Skin Fungus – A Global Epidemic
  • Pesticide Runoff & Flushed Prescription Medications

California agriculture is the number one consumer of pesticides in the United States.

The state produces half of the US agricultural produce.

  • 99 percent of artichokes
  • 99 percent of walnuts
  • 97 percent of kiwis
  • 95 percent of garlic
  • 89 percent of cauliflower
  • 85% of the lettuce
  • 71 percent of spinach, and
  • 69 percent of carrots

Contaminated agricultural water runoff affects the entire ecosystem.

“Atrazine (an herbicide) is the most common contaminant in our drinking water. It causes male frogs to turn into females.” – Tyrone Hayes, UC Berkeley Biologist

  • Invasive Bullfrogs

“Bullfrogs pose several threats to the native amphibians of California, many of which are endangered. When bullfrogs—the largest frogs in North America—escape or are released into the wild, they have a tendency to eat other amphibians and any other wildlife that will fit in their mouths. Their size also allows them to outcompete native species for food. Even worse, a large portion of the bullfrogs imported into this country—62 percent according to one study—are infected with the deadly chytrid fungus (Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis), a lethal skin disease which has already been blamed for extinctions of about 100 amphibian species around the globe.” – Should California Ban American Bullfrogs? Scientific American Blog

 How to Help

Speak up for Nevada County frogs, toads, and salamanders.

 

If you liked this post, check out Miniscule Mountain Beetle Turning Forests Red

click on image to download free coloring sheet

click image to purchase or view more Life on the Creek art

Resources:

Books

Discovering Sierra Reptiles and Amphibians, Basey, H. E.

The Audubon Society Field Guide to North American Reptiles & Amphibians, Behler, J. L., King

Peterson Field Guide to Western Reptiles and Amphibians, Third Edition, Stebbins, R. C.

Websites

AmphibianWeb – Overview of Chytridiomycosis

California Tree Frog identification

Chytrid in Nevada County – Sierra Streams Institute

El Valle Amphibian Conservation Center

Frogs Need Our Help – amphibianfoundation.org

Hazards of Atrazine herbicide – Clear Health Centers video

Indicator Species – ecology.com

Nevada County Resource Conservation District – Amphibians

Reproductive problems linked to atrazine – Tyrone Hayes, UC Berkeley Biologist

Wildherps.com– Sierran Tree Frog

Service Working to Combat Killer Chytrid in California Frog Populations – Sacramento Fish & Wildlife Office

State of Sierra Frogs (2008) PDF – Sierra Nevada Alliance

Wildherps.com– Sierran Tree Frog

What if there is no happy ending? – Scientific American, 2013

Worldwide Amphibian Declines 2017

Bird’s Nest Fungi – Spores Spread by Rain Drops

At first glance, they look like curious, minuscule insect nests. Tiny baskets, holding a collection of

‘eggs,’ clinging to a dead log at the edge of Deer Creek.

Identification investigations revealed something more interesting than ‘just’ insects.  Bird’s Nest Fungi – Nidulariaceae, Cyathus stercoreus – mushrooms that use raindrops to propagate.

Moving with the Rain

Raindrops aren’t the only way they move from place to place. At the base of the peridiole (spore sack) is a cord that unfurls when disturbed. Like newborn spiders, these cords are long and sticky. They cling to whoever or whatever passes by.

Anatomy of a Fungus

Once the peridiole drops off or is eaten and excreted by an animal, the spores are released to begin a new life cycle.

The ‘nests’ are approximately five millimeters in diameter, about half the size of a pencil top.

Bird’s Nest Fungi can be seen in late winter and early spring. Look for them in shady places growing on dead or decomposing wood.

Click on image to order or see more Life on the Creek art

Resources:

Fungi of California

Mushrooms, Fungi, Mycology

Wikipedia – Bird’s Nest Fungi – Nidulariaceae

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