The word ‘deer’ is an irregular noun. It is used for both single and multiple animals. Deer are also crepuscular, active during twilight hours.
Of the six subspecies of mule deer living in California, Nevada County is home to two; the California mule deer (west side of Sierra Nevadas to the southern coast) and the Columbia black-tailed deer (Northern California through the Pacific Northwest). Since black-tailed deer are the species roaming through my yard, they are the main subject of this article.
History & Range
The Columbia black-tailed deer is also known by the names; Pacific buck, Columbian deer, coast black-tailed buck, and black-tailed deer. It is a subspecies of Mule deer and will cross-breed with the California mule deer and Rocky Mountain mule deer where habitats overlap.In 1846, an Oregon Trail traveler noted black-tailed deer as far west as Wyoming. Today their range is smaller. It includes northern California, Oregon, Washington, some parts of coastal and interior BC as well as the Alaskan panhandle.With the 1934 Taylor Grazing Act, the organization that eventually became known as the Bureau of Land Management was tasked with managing public forage lands for cattle and wildlife. It became one of the numerous organizations cooperating across state and county lines to track and manage these wild animals. ( US Forest Service, California Department of Fish and Wildlife and U.S. Department of Agriculture.)
Identification
large ears, relaxed
short, stubby tail
loose tail position
winter coat color – silver gray
cap / patch of fur at top of head
thicker stripe of dark fir on tail than Mule deer
Behavior
Except for breeding season (November – December), does and bucks live in separate groups. Female groups of related individuals are led by a dominant (alpha) animal, usually the eldest mother. She chooses foraging and birthing grounds. The alpha female is usually the first to mate during mating season and she generally chooses to stay close to her mother’s territory, leaving it only if forced.
Males leave their mothers between a year-and-a-half and eighteen months old to seek bachelor groups.
New antlers (bone protrusions) are grown each spring and shed every winter. Antlers are grown out with a ‘velvet’ covering, a living structure with blood vessels. Once it dries and antlers harden, bucks rub them against trees to remove the velvet. A buck’s age is reflected in the number of forks. Antlers are used for sparring and determining social position as well as for mate competition.
Communication
Communication methods include vocalizations, scent, and pheromones. Glands between the toes, and near the knees (hock) create trail marking and individual recognition signals while glands outside the lower legs produce alarm scents. Large, independently moving, ears enable sensitive hearing.
Migration
In California, at higher elevations, some herds of black-tailed deer migrate. Locations of forage food and snow levels determine their movements.
In Nevada County, below Nevada City, seasonal herd movements do not cover great distances.
Life Span
The black-tailed deer life span is approximately 7 years (in the wild), reaching sexual maturity between 1-2 years.
Reproduction
Males are polygynous, they’ll mate with multiple females.Female gestation lasts between six to seven months, with fawns born May – June.For the first week after birth, fawns have no scent. This allows the mother to leave her babies to replenish her body weight and produce adequate amounts of milk for her young.Caution: Mothers with fawns view humans as predators.
Diet
Like cattle, sheep, giraffe, goats, and antelope, deer are cud-chewing grazers. With teeth and mouthparts specialized for breaking down cellulose as well as a digestive compartment housing bacteria necessary to turn plant material into protein, volatile fatty acids as well as vitamins B and K, deer spend the early morning and dusk hours grazing and afternoon and evening hours, bedded down, regurgitating, and giving food a second chew. Spring and winter diet includes;
California Buckeye
Douglas-fir
Fern
Lichen
Huckleberry
Poison oak
Grasses
Cedar
Bark & buds
Late spring and fall diet includes;
Grasses
Fruit (blackberry & apple)
Fireweed
Pearly everlasting
Forbs
Rosehips
Salmonberry
Salal
Maple trees
Acorns
Rumination – Chewing Cud
Grazer gut bacteria often match soil microbes. Eating and defecating perpetuate healthy regeneration cycles for both plants and animals.Grazing to Heal the Earth – Grasses & Ruminants | 3:14 Chewing Cud
Opossums are North America’s only marsupial, an animal that carries and feeds minuscule young in a pouch.
First Observations, Description & Misidentification
When they were first observed (and recorded), during the early 1600’s, John Smith stated that the animal “hath an head like a swine …tail like a rat … of the bigness of a cat.” Its name was derived from an expression for “white dog/beast” in the Virginia Algonquian language.
Animal misidentification is still common today… If your “cat” has a hairless tail that it hangs from, toothy alligator-like jaws, and it hisses, it’s probably a Virginia opossum.
Fossil Record & Species Introduction to California
Opossums can be traced through sixty million years of the fossil record. What makes this even more astounding is the animal’s two-year lifespan!
Evolved for tropical ecosystems, several waves of opossum were introduced to California. The first population was brought to southern California in 1890, Tennessee immigrants brought the second wave to central California in 1910 as a food source and escapees from a fur trading operation was responsible for a third wave.
Traits Supporting Adaptability
Opossum tracks. Opossums have opposable thumbs on all four feet. Photo Credit: Lensim
“Hands” (opposable thumbs) on all four feet
Prehensile tail – used like a 5th limb/hand
Freezes when in danger
Faints – nervous shock reaction – falls over & plays dead
Anal gland secretions – a repulsive greenish musk-like fluid
Females can have three litters/year – producing up to 20 babies each
Short gestation period – 11-14 days
Rabies resistant (probably from low body temperature)
Resistance to poisonous snake venom
Predators that eat living animals often leave prey that appears (and smells) dead. the animal rolls over on its side, becomes limp, shuts its eyes, and lets its tongue hang from an open mouth. The heartbeat slows and the animal appears to be dead.
Diet
They’re omnivores and will eat anything.
Small rodents
Ticks – up to 5,000 in a season! (Lyme disease reduction)
Insects
Slugs
Snails
Worms
Frogs
Birds
Vegetables
Fruits
Garbage
Pet Food
Bird Seed
Opossums are nocturnal scavengers. They’re attracted by the smell of rotting food in garbage cans and along roadways.
After 2.5 months in the marsupial pouch, babies come out and cling to their mother’s fur.
Jacks, Jills & Joeys
Adult males and females are known as Jacks and Jills. Babies are Joeys.
Pouch Checking
Habitat
An opossum’s first habitat of choice is near streams and wetlands. Since they are not prolific diggers, they’ll shelter in tree cavities, abandoned burrows of other animals, under brush piles or under manmade structures.
In urban areas, they can be found under decks, in garden sheds, attics, garages, or under steps. Nesting material appears like random debris piles rather than woven or constructed.
Opossum Pest Prevention
Because of their varied diet, adaptability, and warm winter climates, the animals have successfully integrated into urban environments. If you have opossums living near your home, below are a few actions you can take to encourage them to move.
clear overhanging brush away from the walls of our home and roof – at least 5 feet.
remove fallen fruit from under fruit trees
tightly stack firewood, at least 18″ off the ground
tight-fitting garbage can lids
feed pets indoors and/or move pet food inside at night
poultry wire protection fencing around gardens (burry down under earth at the base at least 6″)
keep food scraps out of compost piles
screen access to under house or steps
Although Opossums can carry disease, and their defense strategies are noxious and showy, they are not generally considered dangerous wild animals.
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The Opossum: Its Amazing Story by William & Winifred Krause {Dept. of Pathology and Anatomical Sciences, School of Medicine, University of Missouri, Columbia, Missouri] PDF
Smart birds—crows, and ravens are part of the Corvid family. This group of perching birds includes blue jays, magpies, and nutcrackers.
In Old Norse and English cultures, a dark-haired person who steals is referred to as a ‘raven.’ Native Americans associated the raven with prophecy and an omen of loss.
Smart Bird Intelligence
Corvid Commonalities
As adaptable as the raccoon and coyote, corvids live in a variety of environments – wherever there’s a ready food source – and take full advantage of abundant opportunities that humans offer.
Omnivores – corvids will eat just about anything; insects, snails, worms, frogs, snakes, garbage, carrion, seeds, grain, berries and other fruit, fish, small turtles, crayfish, mice, and baby birds from other species.
They quickly learn how to access food sources whether it’s by opening trash cans or dropping nuts from distance.
Corvids are social animals, mating for life and living in extended family groups.
Males and females build nests together. Between 3 – 9 eggs are laid and chicks hatch after about two weeks. Older siblings help care for the young.
Family units provide education, protection, comfort, socialization, and companionship.
Photo Credit: noisytoy.net
Thought to be one of the most intelligent birds, experts say their reasoning abilities are about the same as a seven-year-old child.
Crows remember events for ten years plus, teaching new generations what they learned.
Crows and ravens work in groups to problem solve.
Corvids have developed, sophisticated language skills – differing group and family dialects.
Mobbing is when they work together to drive off predators.
Corvids enjoy playing and require lots of mental stimulation.
They notice when a member of their group has died, holding ‘funerals.’
What are the differences between crows and ravens?
Crows:
.7 – 1.5 lbs
Crows make caw-caw calls.
Fan-shaped tails.
Spend winter nights in communal roots, sometimes numbering in the thousands.
Vocalize while flying.
Ravens:
Photo Credit: Diliff
1.5 – 4.5 lbs
Ravens make growl-like calls.
Diamond-shaped tail.
Hides food in stashes and uses distraction to draw attention away from them.
Large throat hackle feathers.
Mostly hunts for food in pairs.
Soars without making calls.
Raccoons evolved around water sources. People observing them gave them names describing their ‘washing’ behavior.
Scientific name – Procyon lotor means “before-dog washer” in Latin
Aztecs – Mapachitli – “one who takes everything in its hands”
Chinese – Orsetto lavatore “little-bear washing”
Garman – Waschbär – “wash-bear”
Italian – Araiguma – “washing-bear”
Algonquian / Powhatan Indian – Arocoun – “he scratches with his hands”
English speaking North American colonists changed Arocoun to raccoon
Hands & Masks
Raccoons explore with touch. It’s long been thought that ‘food washing’ was for cleanliness. Dipping ‘hands’ in water is called dousing; it stimulates nerve endings in the forepaws, giving the animal an improved ability to detect changes in pressure.
Raccoons don’t have thumbs but use both forepaws to manipulate objects, like hands. Their forepaws have concentrations of mechanoreceptor cells similar to primates and humans.
Since the animal is nocturnal and thought to be colorblind, it makes sense that it interprets the world through touch.
The mask, a stripe of dark fur surrounding the eyes, maximizes night vision by blocking glare.
Intelligence
Raccoons are omnivores; they’ll eat anything. Scientists believe that this characteristic, as with humans, contributes to their extraordinary intelligence.
A raccoon is a relentless problem solver, passing learning along to their young. As people attempt to keep them out, raccoons adapt, becoming smarter in the process.
In 1907, H.B. Davis published a raccoon intelligence study in The American Journal of Psychology. Twelve raccoons were given a series of locks to crack. He presented the test subjects with 13 puzzles to solve. Their success rate was nearly 85%.
“The learning curves for the raccoons and Kinnaman’s monkeys… seem to show a nearly equal facility in learning to undo fasten-ings.”
“Test of the raccoon’s powers of retention show that skill in undoing simple fastenings once learned remains practically undiminished…”
Breeding & Raising Young
Mating Season – January and June
Females mature and can reproduce at about one year
Two – five kits are common per litter, born in spring
Females separate from others to raise young.
Mothers teach kits by example
Kits remain with mother between 13-14 months
Raccoons in tree cavities & burroughs – keeping up to 20 den sites at one time
Factoids
Full grown = up to 23 pounds
Adult male = boar
Adult female = sow
Young = kits
Lifespan = wild – 2 – 3 years, captivity 20 years
Predators
In the wild bobcats, coyotes, mountain lions, great horned owls, and red-tailed hawks pose threats.
In urban environments, infection, disease, and cars are the major causes of death
Differing Interactions with Humans
Raccoons in the wild are shy around humans, avoiding them when possible.
Urban raccoons will approach them looking for handouts.
Highly adaptable, raccoons are able to easily navigate living in urban environments. Food sources (pet and bird feeding stations and garbage day) are plentiful and they’ll den in attics and abandoned buildings. Raccoons understand traffic patterns and travel on roofs and fence tops.
The trapper in the above video is from Florida, but his topics and the other animals he talks about are applicable to Nevada County.
Becoming Invasive
Germany
In 1934 a forester released a pair of raccoons to “enrich the fauna” for hunting. In 1945, twenty-five raccoons escaped from a fur farm after an air strike. Since then, the raccoon population in Germany has grown tremendously.
German raccoon population increase
Raccoons are now considered an invasive species. A zero-tolerance policy is in place. Over 10,000 raccoons are trapped and killed in Germany per year.
Japan Rascal the Raccoon anime show appeared in the 1970s. As a result, children wanted pet raccoons. At one time, over 1,500 raccoons were imported per month. When keeping them became difficult, many were released in the forest.
Today, raccoons cause hundreds of thousands of dollars of damage to ancient, irreplaceable buildings and temples. Raccoons have spread to most regions in the country. Japan prohibits raccoon imports.
Problem Prevention
To discourage denning on or near the property;
• Securely close trash containers
• Don’t leave pet food outside
• Remove bird feeders
• Eliminate water sources and ornamental fish
• Cover outdoor sandboxes when not in use
• Keep brush cleared
• Eliminate access to attics, basements, and barns
Raccoon Voiding Spots and Latrines
Wilderness raccoons prefer to poo at the base of trees, on horizontal surfaces, on large rocks or in raised tree forks. Undigested seeds are often visible.
In urban areas, they’ll go on rooftops, decks, woodpiles, and in attics, haylofts, and in garages.
A raccoon latrine is a communal defecation area used by multiple raccoons.
1940s advertisement
Feces Spread Disease
Fungal Spores
Parasitic raccoon roundworm- causes neurologic damage and possible death: eggs are temperature resistant and can become airborne when dry
Giardia
Leptospirosis – contact with open wounds
Above is a list of some of the infectious diseases carried by raccoon feces. They can also be spread through contact with urine, saliva, bites and scratches.
Communal Food
Because food sources attract a variety of animals, disease can spread. Infectious raccoons may appear healthy. When a disease moves from a raccoon to a cat, dog, or human, it can be more challenging to combat.
Feces Clean-Up
Prepare for cleaning by protecting your airways (mucous membranes) and skin.
• Wear disposable gloves and rubber boots (or disposable booties that cover shoes)
• Wear an N95-rated respirator (hardware store)
• Plan to burn or sterilize gear when finished
Outdoor Latrine Cleaning
• Use a shovel (or inverted bag) to collect feces and contaminated material. Bury or burn. If placing in the trash, double bag and secure to protect landfill workers
• Roundworm eggs are chemical resistant. High heat will kill them. Cover feces with boiling water or blast with a propane torch
• Use boiling water to disinfect shovel blades and deck surfaces
• Burn or boil and disinfect protective gear
• Wash hands thoroughly with hot, soapy water. Launder clothing with hot water and detergent
Indoor Latrine Cleaning
Lightly mist area with soapy water in a spray bottle to avoid stirring up dust
Collect and dispose of feces as listed above
Use a bucket of hot, soapy water and a damp sponge to wipe down the area
Rinse sponge frequently
Flush contaminated water down the toilet
Disinfect the bucket with boiling water
Burn or boil and disinfect protective gear
Wash hands thoroughly with hot, soapy water
Launder clothing with hot water and detergent
Editor’s Note:
Apart from post titles, I endeavor to present Deer Creek topics objectively from multiple angles, using reliable sources. While the Center for Disease Control says, “human infections are rare,” I think a cautionary note is valuable.
As more people spread into wild areas, animals with the ability to live in urban areas join us. Our structures, pets, feeding stations and trash fulfill their hierarchy of needs. As a result, species whose paths would rarely cross are ‘meeting at the grocery store,’ creating opportunities for infectious organisms.
There are valid reasons behind the statement, “don’t feed wild animals.”
Below are several worst-case scenarios illustrating those reasons.
Danger of Disease
Attic Horror Story
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The lone howl, the most recognized coyote vocalization, is thought to be a proclamation by an individual coyote separated from its pack.
Contact & Greeting – ‘Wow-oo-wow’ appears to be a “greeting song” when two or more pack members reunite. Group yips are thought to be a response to the lone howl.
The coyote is North America’s oldest indigenous species
Originating near Yellowstone three million years ago, this medium-sized canine is extremely adaptable and intelligent. They’ve settled into every wild, rural and urban corner of the North American continent.
Unlike other species that were extinguished by eradication efforts, Coyotes create replacement populations when their numbers are reduced.
Coyote experts suggest that it’s easier to train coyotes and people to coexist rather than launching hunting campaigns. Killing coyotes opens more territory for roaming individuals to claim.
Breeding
Breeding season is February through March. Coyotes are monogamous and mate for life.
In spring, newly mated couples claim territories and set-up dens. Den establishment may be cleaning out a previously used space or taking over an abandoned skunk, badger, or marmot holes.
A pregnancy lasts about two months. Litters range be between 3 – 12 pups. Litter size is determined by the number of other coyotes in the territory and the availability of food.
Once the cubs are born, the male and other pack members help feed, raise and protect them. Pups remain with the parents somewhere between six months to one year.
The Pack & Social Behavior
A family unit contains a reproductive female and her mate. Nonreproductive females, bachelor males, and other young adults may join the pack in the winter for companionship, but this is usually temporary.
Hunting coyotes can be singular or work in groups. At times pairs and small packs will form to take large prey such as deer, cow, sheep, or large domestic dog. (The ever-unpredictable coyote may also initiate play behavior with large pet dogs.)
Occasionally, coyotes will form interspecies relationships. Coyotes have been observed working in tandem with American badgers while rodent hunting. A badger has been seen allowing head snuggles and face licking from a coyote.
Aggressive coyote behavior most closely matches fox behavior.
While not common, coyotes have been known to breed with dogs when there is no other alternative.
Statistics & Threats
Males = 18 – 44 lbs
Females = 15 – 40 lbs
Life span 6-8 years.
Humans pose the biggest threat to coyotes. In rural farming areas, most coyote deaths are caused by hunting and trapping. In urban environments, the majority of coyote deaths are caused by automobiles.
Versatile Diet
90% of a coyote’s diet consists of meat, but a coyote will eat almost anything, often experimenting with previously unknown items.
Prey species;
rabbits
sheep
rodents
squirrels
birds
frogs
lizards
snakes (Rattlesnakes! Coyotes tease the snake to uncoil, then bites the head and shakes.)
fish
crayfish
insects
grubs
worms
black bear cubs (unusual)
also scavenges large animal carcasses
Wild Areas
In wild areas, coyotes may compete with bobcats and mountain lions for mule deer.
Scavenging in Rural & Urban Areas
If fresh meat is not available, coyotes will scavenge for;
berries
pears
figs
strawberries
elderberry
avocado
peaches
apples
persimmons
watermelons
cantaloupes
carrots
corn
dropped fruit under fruit trees
garden produce
Winter Food Sources
In winter they will also eat;
grasses
grains
other animal droppings
Cities and Populated Areas
In urban areas, a coyote diet can consist of;
dog and cat food
cats
feral cat populations
bird seed at feeding stations
small dogs
large dogs (sometimes), with several coyotes working as a team
Coyote Hazing
Coyotes in cities should be wary of humans.
It’s up to people to reinforce the coyote’s fear
Hazing will help maintain healthy boundaries for all.
Hazing methods;
throwing rocks
waving arms
shouting
blowing an air horn
spraying it with a water hose
or acting aggressively
looking at it directly in the eye
make yourself look larger
motion sensitive outdoor lighting may discourage coyotes
Guard Animals
In areas where livestock is at risk, some ranchers and farmers have found that llamas, donkeys, and dogs bred for guarding aid as coyote deterrents. (See University of California – How to Manage Pests link below for details.)
Identifying Problem Behavior
Increased numbers of coyotes on streets and in yards
Hunting pets in the daytime
Coyotes seen in playgrounds or parks during the day
Coyotes approaching people during the daytime and/or behaving with aggression
Chasing joggers, bicyclists or other outdoor enthusiasts
Attacking pets while the pet is on a leash
When a Coyote Becomes a Safety Hazard
A coyote becomes a public safety hazard when it no longer fears humans and behaves with aggression.
Coyotes that bite humans have usually been fed by humans
In 2017, the USDA Animal and Plant Inspection Service killed 3,199 coyotes in California.
If a coyote has developed bad behavior, a predator removal professional must be called (it is illegal to shoot firearms in populated areas). Coyote relocation is not an option, the animal is killed. Nevada County’s Federal Trapper can be reached at 530-470-2690 during office hours.
Coexisting
With their ability to predict outcomes, make changes, communicate, quickly identify new food sources and understand human behavior, it’s easy to see why the coyote is an evolutionary success story.
In Nevada County, and along Deer Creek, it’s important to realize that coyotes are always watching. Just like discouraging bad bear behavior, residents must be vigilant about keeping food and water sources at a minimum. It’s also wise to mindful about creating situations where small pets and farm animals may become prey.
If humans do their part by keeping coyotes wary, the two species can coexist peacefully. Haunting coyote song will serenade us at night and they’ll keep our rodents, insects and rattlesnakes in check.
Of the six subspecies of mule deer living in California, Nevada County is home to two; the California mule deer (west side of Sierra Nevadas to the southern coast) and the Columbia black-tailed deer (Northern California through the Pacific Northwest). Since black-tailed deer are the species roaming through my yard, they are the main subject of this article.
Female groups of related individuals are led by a dominant (alpha) animal, usually the eldest mother. She chooses foraging and birthing grounds. The alpha female is usually the first to mate during mating season and she generally chooses to stay close to her mother’s territory, leaving it only if forced.
Males leave their mothers between a year-and-a-half and eighteen months old to seek bachelor groups.
New antlers (bone protrusions) are grown each spring and shed every winter.
Antlers are grown out with a ‘velvet’ covering, a living structure with blood vessels. Once it dries and antlers harden, bucks rub them against trees to remove the velvet. A buck’s age is reflected in the number of forks. Antlers are used for sparring and determining social position as well as for mate competition.
Female gestation lasts between six to seven months, with fawns born May – June.
For the first week after birth, fawns have no scent. This allows the mother to leave her babies to replenish her body weight and produce adequate amounts of milk for her young.
Caution: Mothers with fawns view humans as predators.
bigness of a cat.” Its name was derived from an expression for “white dog/beast” in the Virginia Algonquian language.
